Salamanders

Figure 7. Oak-pine forest.

       Terrestrial salamanders (see Life History) include species that are: restricted in distribution in the Great Smokies; wide ranging but not common species; and wide ranging in higher or lower elevations, and generally common. Because they do not have larvae, they must be sampled where they carry out their entire life cycle, usually on the forest floor and under leaf litter and other debris.

Table 1. continued

       Monitoring programs can target each type of distributional pattern or habitat listed below, depending upon the objectives of the researchers and the funds and personnel available. For example, whereas a few people can easily monitor the status of the Southern Zigzag Salamander, a much more elaborate protocol will be necessary to monitor populations of the Southern Red-backed Salamander. A number of these species are syntopic, making multispecies monitoring a realistic objective. As much as possible, single species sampling and monitoring should be avoided in favor of multispecies sampling and data recording. Some examples of typical distribution patterns follow:

Species restricted in distribution

Southern Zigzag Salamander (Plethodon ventralis).

Wide ranging, but not common, species

Southern Appalachian Salamander (Plethodon oconaluftee).

Species that are common and wide ranging at higher elevations

Pigmy Salamander (Desmognathus wrighti); Jordan’s Salamander (Plethodon jordani); Southern Gray-cheeked Salamander (Plethodon metcalfi).

Species that are common and wide ranging at lower elevations

Northern Slimy Salamander (Plethodon glutinosus); Southern Red-backed Salamander (Plethodon serratus).

Figure 8. Middle Prong at Tremont.

       River-dwelling salamanders inhabit only the largest of the Smokies rivers (fig. 8), including Little River, Middle Prong, Oconaluftee River, Little Pigeon River, Abrams Creek, the lower reaches of Deep Creek and, perhaps, Hazel Creek. There are only two true river-dwelling salamanders in the Great Smokies, the Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis), known presently only from Little River, Oconaluftee River, and Deep Creek (Nickerson and others, 2002; Dodd, 2004) (fig. 9), and the Common Mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus), known only from Little River and Abrams Creek. One additional salamander, the Junaluska Salamander (Eurycea junaluska), tends to be associated with some of the Park’s larger western and northwestern streams and rivers on the Tennessee side of the Smokies.

Figure 9. Ideal habitat for Hellbenders in Lower Abrams Creek.

Larvae are found near the shore, and the adults inhabit streambanks for at least part of the year. However, this species also inhabits some smaller streams, and it is by no means a “river dwelling” species.

       Creek and stream salamanders have larvae that develop in the creeks and streams of the Park (figs.10,11,12), whereas the adults may be aquatic, semi-aquatic, or even terrestrial to a greater or lesser degree. Many of these species are widespread in the Park because of the large number of creeks and streams available for colonization. A few species are found only at higher mountain elevations (for example, the Ocoee and Imitator Salamanders), whereas others are lowland species (Spotted Dusky, Threelined, and Long-tailed Salamanders). Instead of a circumscribed area, their habitat is often linear, following the streams and streamsides.

Figure 10. Small stream in unnamed tributary to Falls Branch.

The dusky salamanders (Desmognathus) are prominent in this group, but there are many exceptions to each habitat categorization listed below. Even Black-bellied Salamanders have been found well above the forest floor in rock crevices among boulders at considerable distances from water. Monitoring adults and larvae of these species requires very different techniques, and may require sampling very different types of habitats.

Nearly aquatic species

Shovel-nosed Salamander (Desmognathus marmoratus).

Predominantly aquatic and streamside species

Spotted Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus conanti); Seal Salamander (Desmognathus monticola); Black-bellied Salamander (Desmognathus quadramaculatus);

Figure 11. Medium-sized stream in normal flow at Roaring Fork.

Santeetlah Salamander (Desmognathus santeetlah); Junaluska Salamander (Eurycea junaluska). The extremely high elevation areas where some streams first appear may be devoid of salamanders if the water emanates from the Anakeesta rock formation (Dodd, 2004).

Species with aquatic larvae but are largely terrestrial as adults

Imitator Salamander (Desmognathus imitator); Ocoee Salamander (Desmognathus ocoee); Three-lined Salamander (Eurycea guttolineata); Long-tailed Salamander (Eurycea longicauda); Blue Ridge Twolined Salamander (Eurycea wilderae).

       A few salamanders require very specialized habitats in the Great Smokies, or at least are usually found in these habitats. Some of these species have larvae which are found in the same streams and creeks as the preceding species, although the adults prefer to

Figure 12. Medium-sized stream in high water at Whiteoak Flats Branch.

leave the streams. Whereas the larvae may be relatively easy to survey, adults often can be quite difficult to find with any regularity. One species, the Seepage Salamander, does not have a larval stage, and the adults are only found in wet seeps.

Cave inhabitants (fig. 13)

Cave Salamander (Eurycea lucifuga).

       Known only from Stupkas Cave, the Calf caves, and one record from Whiteoak Sink. Other salamanders in the Smokies may live in caves, especially around the entrances (Dodd and others, 2001). The larvae of some salamanders (for example, E. longicauda in Gregorys Cave) develop in pools well inside cave passages (fig. 14).

Figure 13. Entrance to Gregorys Cave.

Rock face inhabitants (fig. 15)

Spotted Dusky Salamander (Desmognathus conanti); Seal Salamander (Desmognathus monticola).

       Permanent to near permanent wet rock walls with hiding places, particularly along trails, road cuts, and in the vicinity of waterfalls, especially at lower elevations.

Figure 14. Rimstone pools and cave pool at Gregorys Cave. Salamander larvae develop in the pools, although they are unlikely to complete metamorphosis.

Spring Inhabitants

Spring Salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus); Black-chinned Red Salamander (Pseudotriton ruber).

Inhabitants of swampy and mucky habitats (fig. 16)

Mud Salamander (Pseudotriton montanus). Known only from a few scattered locations in the lowlands of the northern side of the Park.

Inhabitants of wet seepages (fig. 17)

Seepage Salamander (Desmognathus aeneus).

       Known only from drainages on the southwestern side of the Park. Finally, there are salamanders that breed in ponds, and it is virtually only at this time that these species can be censused. Five species fall into this category: the Spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum); Marbled Salamander (A. opacum); the rare Mole Salamander (A. talpoideum); Four-toed Salamander (Hemidactylium scutatum); and Eastern Red-spotted Newt (Notophthalmus viridescens). Breeding ponds are limited within the Park,

Figure 15. Rock face near Double Gap.

being concentrated in Cades Cove and nearby Big Spring Cove (the four Finley-Cane sinkhole ponds), the Cane Creek drainage, and at scattered localities between Sugarlands and Cades Cove along Little River (at the Sinks and ditches along the road to Tremont). These locations are on the Tennessee side of the Park. Although beaver ponds are found in Bone Valley and Big Cove in North Carolina, and small scattered ditches and wetlands occur in Cataloochee Valley, no pond salamanders are known to breed in them.

Figure 16. Former trout pond mucky habitat in Cataloochee.

Figure 17. Seep at Big Spring Cove.

Mud Salamanders are known only from a few scattered locations in the lowlands of the northern side of the Park.

Frogs